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Seasonal Grazing in the Australian Alps

There is a long and varied history of grazing in the Australian Alps, ranging over different landforms and vegetation types.

The system of grazing varies. There are permanent freehold runs generally at lower elevations throughout the Alps (some are at relatively high elevations in the northern Snowy Mountains), but traditionally only seasonal grazing has occurred on the highest mountain plateaus. Seasonal grazing involves taking stock into the high country (subalpine and alpine zones) in summer to graze on the native grasses and herbs.

The impacts of grazing depend largely on the landform and type of vegetation and the particular practices adopted by individual graziers. The high mountain tussock grasslands, herbfields and mossbeds of the subalpine and alpine zones are particularly sensitive. This paper discusses the history, effects and management of seasonal grazing in these areas.

How did it begin?

As early as the 1820s pastoralists were taking sheep and cattle into (and across) the mountains in search of new pastures, free of drought and disease. A newspaper report of 1834 mentioned cattle at Gibsons Plains (Kiandra) and some families claim their forebears were in the area in the 1820s.

The gold discoveries of the 1850s and 1860s paved the way for closer pastoral settlement in the Alps. Many former miners took up small grazing selections in the narrow valleys and timbered foothills. Lowland areas, including the lower slopes, river valleys and tablelands of NSW, were suitable for grazing all year round. In contrast, the harsh winter climate of the steep montane forests and elevated plateaus made grazing impossible for part of the year.

The lowland selections were eventually converted to freehold ownership. The higher country remained public land, but it was divided into large blocks for seasonal grazing under either a licence or a lease system.

In summer, when the lowland pastures became dry and sparse, graziers took their stock up to the mountain blocks for foraging. The alpine and subalpine elevated plateaus, known as high plains, supported a natural pasture that provided good grazing. Cooler temperatures and higher rainfall meant that the high plains were green and lush even in summer. Graziers were able to run 30% to 50% more stock on their properties than lowland grazing alone would have allowed. Some graziers, unable to make a satisfactory living on their freehold land alone, came to depend on public land for summer grazing.

Both sheep and cattle were grazed in the Australian Alps, although sheep were grazed much more extensively in NSW than in Victoria. In the first half of last century it was common agricultural practice to promote burning to encourage new growth of palatable shoots. Frequent burning became an integral part of grazing on many parts of the high country, particularly where sheep were grazed.

Drought relief

In times of drought the mountain country provided precious fodder. Last century large numbers of stock were brought to the high country for drought relief. For example, in 1865 one of the established landowners in the Cooma area (NSW), William Bradley, sent 48,000 sheep and 2,000 cattle into the mountains. During the severe 1901 drought, about 40,000 sheep, as well as many thousands of cattle and mobs of horses, were on the Bogong High Plains (Vic). This practice was repeated during other severe droughts and stocking rates were high.

In the early days governments encouraged graziers to use the high country, recognising the economic value of the Alps as a pastoral resource. In the 1860s in Victoria, the government introduced a system of annual licences. In 1889 the Snow Lease Tenure Act was introduced in NSW, giving graziers the right to graze an area of alpine pasture, or snow field as it was called, for seven years. (It has been suggested that this may simply have been a government revenue-raising exercise). The early leases and licences did not limit livestock numbers or the grazing season, which often led to gross overgrazing of the land.

What effects did past grazing practices have?

Past grazing by domestic livestock, and associated activities, such as burning, fundamentally altered the high mountain (subalpine and alpine) ecosystems, which have evolved in the absence of frequent fire and regular grazing by larger animals, hoofed beasts in particular. Both the soils and the vegetation are highly susceptible to such disturbances, and some of the plant communities have been modified by grazing and associated activities.

Much of the damage in the Alps today is a legacy of the impacts of use prior to the 1940s. A combination of over-grazing, deliberate burning and the occasional wildfire, such as those of 1926 and 1939, led to massive degradation of the highest mountain areas in both NSW and Victoria.

The areas that showed the most deterioration were those most favoured for grazing: the tussock grasslands under Snow Gum woodlands and, at higher elevations, tall alpine herbfields. Put simply, domestic stock are quite foreign to Australian alpine ecosystems.

Damage differed according to the sensitivity of the area and the extent of disturbance. Three common signs of damage were vegetation loss exposing bare soil, erosion of exposed soil, and deep channelling of drainage lines. In some places the soil mantle was stripped entirely, and stony erosion pavements resulted.

'The 1939 bushfires added the final touch. Much of the Snow Gum and heathland was burnt to ground level. Parts of the grassland were burnt but less severely. Even some mossbeds caught fire and smouldered for weeks afterwards.' (A.B. Costin and D.J. Wimbush (1979) Trends in Vegetation at Kosciusko, Aust. J. Bot. 27:6)

The combined effects of extremes in temperature, strong winds and snow, and very slow rates of soil formation and plant growth, mean that the recovery rate after disturbance is limited. Exposed soil is easily eroded but difficult to replace because the low temperatures inhibit bacterial growth, a major component in the breakdown of vegetative material, and therefore in soil formation.

A change of heart

By the turn of the century, damage to the high country was obvious, and concern for its protection developed in many quarters. The greatest interest was in protecting the value of the Alps as a water catchment for irrigation, hydro-electricity and domestic supply.

To protect the catchments that provided the federal capital, Canberra, with domestic water, grazing was excluded from the high country in the ACT very early in the 1900s. By the late 1930s there was great concern about the condition of the catchment of the Hume Reservoir which included mountainous country in both Victoria and NSW.

The 1940s and 1950s became the decades of catchment protection. The governments of both Victoria and NSW established soil conservation bodies to monitor deterioration of the high country catchments and implement strategies to protect and rehabilitate damaged areas. In 1938 the NSW Government declared the Upper Snowy River and its tributaries as 'an area of erosion hazard'.

The soil conservation organisations of both states also began research to study the causes and effects of erosion in the Australian Alps, setting up a series of long-term research projects in NSW and on the Victorian High Plains. The field sites of some of these projects are still being monitored today, 50 years later.

Control and withdrawal

In the 1940s government departments and graziers acted together to modify existing land management practices. Conditions were introduced, restricting stock numbers and controlling burning. In Victoria, burning ceased altogether and the grazing of all sheep and horses was withdrawn. Graziers were still able to use the snow leases for grazing cattle, but a definite season was established and they were required to abide by the terms and conditions of the licences.

Grazing ends in New South Wales

In response to much public pressure and concern about catchment protection in the Snowy Mountains, grazing was withdrawn from what is now Kosciuszko National Park in NSW.

'The first extensive area to be withdrawn from grazing was the Kosciusko summit area of some 4000 ha in 1944, on account of the locally very serious erosion there and the increasing erosion hazard.' (A.B. Costin, and D.J. Wimbush, (1979) Trends in vegetation at Kosciusko Aust. J. Bot. Vol 27:6)

In 1944 Kosciuszko State Park was declared. In 1958, the government of NSW excluded grazing from most of the high country (above 1370m) and the Soil Conservation Service commenced revegetation and repair works. In 1961 grazing was discontinued in the few remaining snow leases. Managers of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme (beginning in 1948) encouraged the withdrawal of all grazing from snow leases for the sake of protecting the catchment area.

The Soil Conservation Service developed a long-term program to stabilise soils in the area. Repairing the damage involved establishing vegetation cover as quickly as possible to create the surface stability essential for native species to re-establish. In some instances, more substantial structures such as rock weirs and artificial banks had to be built to control water runoff.

Seed used in revegetation was from introduced (exotic) species, because of its ready availability and because the vital role of indigenous vegetation in the functioning of ecosystems was not appreciated as it is today. However, even with introduced species, once an area was stabilised, native species could take hold and eventually replace the introduced species.

In 1967 the National Parks and Wildlife Act was passed and Kosciuszko State Park was declared a national park. Grazing in the Park was totally banned in 1969 and three years later the last leases were finally terminated, bringing to an end 135 years of seasonal grazing in the Snowy Mountains. The slow rates of soil formation and plant growth under alpine conditions mean that rehabilitation is still continuing.

High country cattle grazing continues in Victoria

In Victoria grazing has been withdrawn only from specific parts of the Alps. Unlike in NSW, grazing continues on some alpine and subalpine areas.

In the 1950s, withdrawals occurred in response to the degraded condition of some of the most sensitive areas. Cattle grazing was excluded from the highest summits, including Mounts Bogong, Hotham, Loch and Feathertop, to protect water catchments and alpine vegetation. Later withdrawals occurred in 1988 from the area east of the Snowy River, and the Howitt Plains - Wonnangatta Station, followed in 1991 by parts of the Bogong High Plains, The Bluff and Wabonga Plateau.

The grazing issue has been and still is an integral part of the debate about appropriate land uses in the Victorian Alps. There has been a long campaign to establish an Alpine National Park. Many people believe that the Victorian Alps should be protected in a national park because of their significance for nature conservation, recreation, water catchment and landscape. Grazing of domestic stock does not conform with generally accepted national park management objectives. The interference to natural ecosystems and the presence of exotic animals (including horses and dogs at mustering time) conflict with many people's expectations of land declared as a national park.

The topic has been vigorously debated by the different groups concerned about the issue. Conservationists, supported by scientists, argue that once an area is declared a national park, grazing by cattle is incompatible with protecting national park values and should be excluded. Graziers assert that their grazing practices represent a past land use which has cultural significance and is important in its own right and, if grazing is contrary to national park objectives, the area should not be declared a national park. They also suggest that the problems which have arisen from past overuse are not exacerbated by existing stocking rates.

In 1979 and again in 1983, the Land Conservation Council recommended that grazing continue over most of the Victorian Alps but be withdrawn from particularly high, sensitive areas. In 1989, Parliament passed legislation to establish the Alpine National Park and to exclude grazing from particular areas within it but to allow it to continue in the remainder. The Minister of the time endorsed an Agreement with the opposition parties which provided for seven year licences and included a range of conditions covering renewals, transfers and reallocation, protection of conservation values, and the use of huts, dogs, vehicles, horses and firearms. Victoria's Alpine National Park was declared in December 1989. Today 80% of the Alpine National Park is still available for grazing.

Cows and calves are taken up to the licensed blocks along established routes in December. On the high plains the calves toughen and strengthen on the natural fodder and in the bracing climate. Most of the area is not fenced and cattle are prevented from straying excessively by the use of salt licks and mustering. At the end of the season (April/May) the herds are mustered and driven back down the mountain to their lowland pastures. On their return, 70% are sold off as 'store cows', ready to be fattened on improved pastures and sold again.

Currently (1992) about 14,000 head of cattle graze in the high country, including about 8500 in the Alpine National Park. Licenses are issued to fewer than 100 individual graziers. Much of the grazing is on the high quality 'alpine' pastures, in alpine and subalpine environments above 1400m.

Over the years the graziers have devised systems of management that integrate feed supplies on the home property and the grazing run. The level of dependence on the use of public land for the viability of the farming operation varies from grazier to grazier.

To assist in the management of seasonal grazing, Parks Victoria is undertaking further research and monitoring of the effects of grazing.

One of the purposes of such monitoring will be to determine the 'carrying capacity' of grazing blocks including a maximum number of cattle based on protection of naturally and culturally significant features. For graziers, carrying capacity is the maximum number of cattle capable of grazing an area without adversely affecting forage and soil conditions. A conservationist's definition considers the effects on conservation values such as loss of plant species and change in vegetation communities, or the effects on aesthetic or other values. In actual fact, the livestock carrying capacity is probably much higher than the conservation/ecological carrying capacity.

The work of scientists

The Australian Alps caught the attention of both biological and soil scientists over a century ago. In the past 50 or so years, there has been a wealth of scientific studies on the ecology of alpine communities in Australia, beginning with the pioneering work of Mrs Stella Carr (also known as Maisie Fawcett) and Prof. J.S. Turner on the Bogong High Plains, and Dr Alec Costin in the Kosciuszko region of NSW. Their work has been continued and supplemented by numerous studies of the effects of grazing by domestic stock on the soils and vegetation of the Alps by scientists from universities and the CSIRO.

Williams (1991) sums up the outcomes of the scientific work: 'A substantial body of high-quality scientific evidence has accumulated over this period which has shown unequivocally that grazing by domestic livestock has had detrimental effects on the soils and vegetation of the Australian alpine environment. Common consequences of grazing are soil erosion, the selective grazing of sensitive plant species and plant communities, the alteration of vegetation composition and structure through persistent selective grazing, and an increase in the disturbance of soil and vegetation through trampling.

The cattle are free ranging (there are no restrictive fences) and prefer to graze in open vegetation communities such as grasslands, open heathlands and herbfields. They are highly selective, preferring palatable species of grasses, daisies and small heathland shrubs. This means that the sensitivity of the plant communities and individual plants to grazing is variable. Some communities will experience a relatively low grazing pressure, whilst in others the effects of grazing pressure will be high. In addition, because the cattle are free ranging, it is impossible to keep them out of the most sensitive areas.

The effects of grazing on different communities

Williams (1991) goes on to describe the effects of grazing on vegetation communities.

Grasslands
In grassland, studies have shown clearly that there has been more rapid recovery of soil and vegetation on areas from which grazing has been removed than on comparable areas subject to continued grazing. Following removal of grazing, the amount of bare soil decreased, and there were increases in the cover of the vegetation and in species diversity. Grassland has a high occurrence of preferred species. Selective grazing is detrimental to nature conservation, because it alters the relative proportions of species occurring in an area, and also decreases both the cover and diversity of herb species.

Heathlands
It has been claimed that 'alpine grazing reduces blazing' because the cattle keep down the level of shrub growth. These claims are not supported by scientific studies of the effects of grazing on heathlands. Studies in heathland have concentrated on the biology of the dominant shrubs. Cattle tend to avoid heathlands, especially the taller, denser ones. In comparisons between long-term experimental plots at Rocky Valley (Victoria), shrub cover has continued to increase in the grazed plot over the 45 year period since 1946. In the ungrazed plot, shrub cover, whilst increasing in the first 20 years, has declined significantly in the last 10 years, as the shrubs die and are replaced with grasses. Therefore there is little experimental evidence of grazing reducing shrub cover and therefore fire risk. Where there have been increases in the cover of shrubs over the past decades, this has often been the response to recovery from severe disturbances associated with past grazing and burning. The colonization of bare patches by shrubs should be seen very much as part of the healing process on such damaged land.

Herbfields
Herbfields are particularly sensitive to grazing because of the high concentrations of palatable species. Herbfields which occur on steep slopes where snow persists well into the growing season (snowpatch herbfields) are especially susceptible to degradation because of the steep slopes, and the soils remaining moist until well into the summer growing season. Trampling of such moist areas causes severe degradation.

Wetlands
The impact of cattle on wetlands (bogs) is similar to that on snowpatch herbfields. The integrity of wetlands, even though they may constitute a small proportion of the area, is vital to water catchment protection, soil conservation, and maintenance of nature conservation values. Wetlands contain organic peaty soils which are particularly susceptible to trampling because of their structure and the fact that they remain wet year-round. The common plants, especially the Sphagnum Moss, are easily damaged by trampling. Wetlands are not used preferentially for grazing (although cattle regularly enter them in lots of 30 head or more), but are used as a source of drinking water. Many wetlands in the Alps are degraded to the point where extensive erosion pavements occur at the ground surface. Where cattle have been excluded from such degraded sites for 10 years, the recovery of ground vegetation cover is quite evident. No such processes are evident on comparable sites subject to continued grazing.

Summary

The future

There has been a long history of grazing in the Alps and for many Australians the traditional practices have acquired a cultural significance of their own. People generally are unaware of the extent and length of scientific studies, or of their findings.

The two States and the Territory which share the Alps have taken very different paths in response to this issue: early withdrawal in the ACT, gradual, hard-fought withdrawal in NSW and continued grazing within a national park in Victoria.

Looking back, we can be sure that public perceptions about the value of different land uses change according to economic need, political processes, social trends and the state of scientific knowledge. We are often clearer and stronger about the damaging impacts of past uses than we are of our current ones. Experience shows that change of long-accepted practices usually takes a long time. (It was 28 years from the first withdrawals in NSW until grazing finally ceased.)

Currently, grazing continues in Victoria with some reduction, despite ongoing opposition from many scientists, conservationists and recreationists. The future extent and management of any of the present uses of the Alps will depend on a combination of scientific research and monitoring, public perception and political process.

A case study - comparative plots on the Bogong High Plains

Introduction
By the 1940s the degraded condition of the Bogong High Plains was cause for concern. In 1941 Masie Fawcett (Stella Carr), a pioneer in the field of practical ecology, was stationed in the high country of Victoria to carry out ecological surveys of the mountain catchments.

Objective
 To assess the effects of cattle grazing on the vegetation of the Bogong High Plains.

Description
Reference plots were established in representative areas of each of the major subalpine vegetation types - heathland, grassland, herbfield and wetland (bog). In each community a pair of plots was established - one plot within a fenced area, from which cattle were excluded, the other a nearby area to which cattle had access. Most of the plots were established in 1944 in the vicinity of a small five-hectare catchment; these are collectively called the Rocky Valley Plots. In 1946, the Pretty Valley Plots were established, to include a grassland community which was not well represented within the Rocky Valley area.

Method
Botanical composition of the vegetation was analysed using point quadrats, a standard procedure for determining percentage cover of both major and minor species over space and time, and the nature of the ground surface (whether bare, or covered by vegetative matter). At the beginning of the experiment, the composition of each pair of plots was similar.

Discussion of results
 (Only results and discussion of the monitoring of the grassland community at Pretty Valley are reported here.)

At Pretty Valley, both plots were initially grassland, with substantial bare ground. Significant differences had emerged between the plots by the late 1950s, and by 1989 the vegetation was clearly different. On the ungrazed plot, bare ground was minimal, with snowgrass and other herbs co-dominant, providing approximately two-thirds cover, and shrubs one-third cover. On the grazed plot in 1989, snowgrass provided three-quarters of the cover, and there was 10% bare ground. There was a significant reduction in the palatable species of herbs and shrubs.

In addition to differences between plots in the cover of dominant species, the overall floristic diversity was greater on the ungrazed plot than on the grazed plot. Thus, over four decades, the ungrazed plot has changed from a grassland to a herbfield, with a rich and diverse herb component, in addition to snowgrass.

Conclusion
This study of long-term vegetation change has demonstrated clear and substantial changes, especially in relation to grazing by cattle. Alpine and subalpine vegetation is slow to recover from disturbance, and the rate of recovery is unquestionably slower in areas grazed by cattle. Following the removal of cattle, the floristic diversity of grassland increases, mainly due to the expansion of numerous palatable herbs. Continued grazing will undoubtedly supress floristic diversity.

Resources

Barnett, Jenny, (1987) The Effects of Alpine Grazing on Conservation Values. A report, VNPA.

Burning Question in the Snowy (1977) Ecos February, CSIRO

A.B. Costin, and D.J. Wimbush, ? , Scientific Basis for the exclusion of grazing from the Kosciusko National Park.

Dept. of Conservation and Environment, Victoria. (1992) Alpine National Park Management Plans.
 Wonnangatta-Moroka Unit.
Dartmouth Unit
Bogong Unit.
Cobberas-Tingaringy Unit.

Holth, T. (1980) Cattlemen of the High Country. Rigby Publishers.

Johnson, D. (1974) The Alps at the Crossroads. VNPA

Lee, Brian, (1979) A high-country perspective. Ecos

Soil Conservation Service NSW (1986) Above the Treeline.

Study directions

Summer grazing on the sensitive high plains in Victoria benefits some 100 graziers and their families. Investigate the costs of alpine grazing to the government and to the environment? What are the apparent costs? What are the real costs?

Maps showing the areas where grazing is allowed in the Alpine National Park can be found in the Park Management Plan. What other users of these areas would be affected by seasonal grazing?

Suppose the Government is considering the extension of an an alpine national park to encompass an area previously used for a range of activities. Submissions of public opinion are called for. Write a submission about the future use of this area from the view point of a:

  1. conservationist
  2. scientist
  3. grazier
  4. water engineer
  5. skiier

Graziers believe that withdrawing cattle grazing from the high country is destroying a national heritage. Conservationists believe that continuing cattle grazing is destroying our natural heritage. Discuss.

The Australian Alps Education Kit

  1. The Australian Alps - An Introduction
  2. Geology and Geomorphology of the Australian Alps
  3. Soils of the Australian Alps
  4. Vegetation of the Australian Alps
  5. Fauna of the Australian Alps
  6. Who Owns the Australian Alps
  7. Seasonal Grazing in the Australian Alps
  8. Recreation in the Australian Alps
  9. Water catchment in the Australian Alps
  10. Nature Conservation in the Australian Alps

For more information please refer to the Australian Alps national parks list of references